Social Construction of Childhood Essay

Social Construction of Childhood Essay In order to consider how child protection policy and practice has been shaped, a definition of child protection and significant harm and abuse is required. The Department for Education (DFE, 2011) defines child protection as the action that is carried out to safeguard children who are suffering, or are likely to suffer, significant harm. Furthermore the Children Act (1989) defines harm as ill-treatment including neglect, emotional, sexual and physical abuse. Interestingly, Parton et al (2012) suggested that determinations of what should be considered child abuse are socially constructed, and are therefore reflective of the culture and values at a specific moment in time. To begin, childhood is a status that is documented worldwide and throughout history, which sometimes sees the child as innocent ,vulnerable, a consumer, a worker alongside other household earners, a threat to society and it is a construction that changes over time and place (Prout, 2005). Historians of childhood have argued over the meaning, such as Aries (1960) cited by Veerman (1992, p5) stated the concept of childhood didnt exist before the seventeenth century; therefore children were mini adults with the same rights, duties and skills. This idea was supported by the poor law (1601) which was a formal system of training children in trades to contribute to society when they grew up (Bloy, 2002). Another example came from Locke (1632-1734) and the Tabula Rasa model. This proposes that children were morally neutral and were the products of their parents (Horner, 2012). The nineteenth century showed it was the parents responsibility to offer love and pertinent correction, to bring out the good in their nature thus helping them to become contributing members of society. This could easily lead to blaming the parents as good or bad based on the behaviours of their child, since the child was not considered as his own agent. Legislation such as the 1834 Poor Law Reform Act would support Lockes idea as children who were sent to workhouses, would participate in schooling to imprint knowledge. Evidently a number of scandals occurred from inmates eating rotting flesh from bones to survive. The governments response implemented sterner rules for those operating workhouses, along with regular inspections (cited by Berry 1999, p29). Fox Harding (1997) described this era as laissez faire whi ch was based on the family being private with minimal state intervention around children. An alternative concept from Rousseau (1712) suggested the idea childhood being about innocence and a child was born angelic until the world influenced them. This was significant in terms of child protection with the implementation of childrens charities such as Save the Children (founded in 1919). They portrayed children in a variety of adult situations and as poor victims worthy of being rescued using contemporary ideas of childhood (Macek, 2006). Interestingly the Children and Young Persons Act (1933) was also introduced to protect these children from any person legally liable and likely to cause injury to their health. What is obvious is that harm was not clearly understood, considering caning in schools was common until 1987 and stopped because of corporal punishment being abused in schools (Lutomia and Sikolia, 2006). Moving into the twentieth century took a wide shift from the laissez faire approach and along with the concept of childhood, became the notion of state paternalism. Child protection practice was based on extensive state intervention to protect children from poor parental care (Fox Harding, 1997). These changes led to a sharing of blame with their parents for children becoming anti-social (a demon) or a great achiever (an angel) in society. The demonic model illustrated by Pifer (2000) was already seen in childhood construction but blamed society, not the child, when as Rousseau noted is the romantic discourse that becomes tainted with the crooked outside world. These historical concepts dictated that children should be seen and not heard and every aspect of the childs life should be determined by their parents or guardians. Although the shift is evident, it could be argued that the laissez faire and paternalist perspective shared a common view of children having limited capacity for independence and decision making. Pollock (1983) would argue that children were not miniature adults as Aries (1960) claimed, but actually were at a significantly a lower level of development and so had distinctive needs from adults. This suggests as immature people they could make mistakes and be excused from full responsibility for their actions. Given the current high profile debates on children, it is public outrage and moral panics in the media that frequently changes the way things are seen. The research into child deaths has prompted changes in legislation (Parton et al, 2012). Key events such as the death of Maria Coldwell (1974) and Jasmine Beckford (1984), led to specialist workers instead of generic workers. The immediate bureaucratic response which reframed child protection practice was no longer intervention into preventative work but became more focused on assessing risk. Serious case reviews in to a childs death was undertaken as a way of discovering how the tragedy occurred, who was responsible, what professionals were involved, rationalising individual actions and learning lessons for future practice (Rose and Barnes, 2008). The publics perception of social workers placed more pressure on this notion of identifying risk before the child died which developed many theories and models for the professional to pract ice. In contrast to the numerous child deaths, the Cleveland case in 1988 evidenced the over enthusiasm of state intervention. Children were removed from their families based on medical assessments grounded on uncertain scientific knowledge (Hawkes, 2002). The inquiry recommended greater rights for parents and children and suggests the separation from families was seen as abuse itself (Ashden, 2004). This, and proceeding enquires into the deaths of children, offered dilemmas for social workers representing the most visible agencies within the child protection system, in terms of whether a child should be removed or not. This event was a major policy driver to the Children Act 1989, where parents rights have been replaced with responsibility and ensuring children turn out to be good citizens of society. However it could be argued that in practice today the Cleveland event still carries stigma with parents believing their children are going to be taken into care. Sexual abuse statistics fro m the NSPCC (2012) state 20, 758 children in 2009 were subject to sexual abuse with a decline in 2010/11 to 17,727. This result could offer a suggestion that preventative work and forceful criminal justice system in the last two decades is responsible. Alternatively it could be argued there may have been no decline at all and is purely a drop in the number of cases being identified. Interestingly Child protection: Messages from Research conducted in the early 1990s (DoH, 1995) examined the role of the Children Act 1989. The document defied the socio-medical model of child abuse and reframed and contextualised the notion of the dangerous family. This suggested that the responsibility was to be laid on the parents of children that fall out of particular construct in order to combat poverty and crimes. Children such the murderers of Jamie Bulger in 1993 were children carrying out unthinkable, far from innocent acts. However this case offered a different construct as children with a dual status. They committed a crime as an adult yet they were still children in need of protection. Society wanted to look at their background to decide if watching horror movies or having divorced parents or poor discipline made them kill a little boy. Given the medias response the nature nurture debate came to the forefront with notions of being born bad, to being made bad. Fascinatingly the historical view had been to protect children, yet moral panics made society shift to demonising children, branding them as wicked and evil (Bracchi, 2010). The legislation that had previously sought to protect children had also come into conflict with the boundaries of criminal law, as it does not recognise them as children over ten years of age (Molan, 2008). It could be argued that criminal law agrees with Aries (1960) and children are mini adults, yet social workers guidance refers to children up to the age of seventeen. One could question how professionals can work together when legislations cannot agree what age a child is. Further spotlight cases such as Victoria Climbie (2003) highlighted failings of multi-agency workers (Lamming 2003) and facilitated to shape the next change in legislation. The Every Child Matters green paper which outlined five outcomes to be achieved by all children was enshrined in law as part of The Childrens Act (2004). These were defined as, stay safe, be healthy, enjoy and achieve, achieve economic wellbeing, and make a positive contribution (Knowles, 2006) which gave professionals direction on the minimum requirements for every child, and allowed social workers to intervene to meet these needs in child protection practice. Nonetheless, the coalition government in 2010 abolished this agenda (McDermid, 2012) suggesting that families are not as important, even though it has underpinned social work practice for a number of years. Nevertheless child deaths continued to be a growing problem, the Baby Peter case (2008) indicated that individuals are failing children and again multi-agency communication is poor in assessing risk. Another case that followed approximately a year later was the Edlington boys (2009) who tortured two young boys. Society then blamed foster placements and care systems suggesting they do not work and foster placements are as bad as the families they were removed from. Cases such as these developed blame culture, where children were perceived as being failed by the government workers; usually the social workers less often the police and the politicians (Community Care, 2012). The public outcries and criticisms of social services made social workers practice on the side of caution. This suggests the romantic concept of childhood (i.e. protection of innocence), came to the forefront and children were seen as vulnerable and in need of protection. It appears that each disaster that happens th e social construct of children changes. Indeed, researchers into twenty-first century childhood such as Sue Palmer (2006) refers to a Toxic Childhood which is the harm society is causing to children through a competitive, consumer driven, screen-based lifestyle. The media and internet evidence how much it has made it available for children to consider adult notions and behaviours, alcohol, sexual activity, drug use and teenage violence that show that differences between adulthood and childhood are disappearing. Nevertheless it could be debated that contradictory attitudes remain commonplace with children being constructed as innocent little angels and little devils, innately capable of the most awful types of crime until the adults in society influenced them as Rousseau (1712) noted. Despite these criticisms the families that children live continue to be judged as secretive with children growing into poor citizens due to not being protected by them. Very often poor families are classed as poor parents and certain constructions take place without the family even being assessed. To exemplify Tucks (2002) identified a connection between all forms of abuse and social deprivation, but a possible explanation is that perpetrators target vulnerable children or women to secure access to children; socially deprived neighbourhoods are characterised by relatively large numbers of lone parents. Through the pressures of their circumstances and in family crisis, parents had become caught up in a child protection system that was more attuned to assessing risk than to bringing out the best in parents struggling in adversity (DoH, 1995). Moreover Owen and Pritchard (1993) identified the difficulties in classifying at risk and the criterion for assessing what constitutes abuse. Indeed professionals hold a variety of opinions towards what constitutes abuse and could be argued that this alone diminishes the identification of risk to a child. Nonetheless professionals are still expected to protect children by the Children Act 1989 which does outlines significant harm, but it is very ambiguous in terms of definition (Brandon et al 1999). Munros report (2011) on Child Protection agrees that social work involves working with this uncertainty and not able to see what goes on in families which suggests little shift . The defensive practice may come from workers who are expected to manage this uncertainty if the issue of abuse and neglect is not clearly labelled. Since the implementation of the Children Act 1989 the emphasis on the childs rights has become very controversial. The idea of protecting children by giving those rights may have been problematic for adults in terms of taking them seriously which arguably could be minimal representation they have had over the years. Additionally adults may be averse to handing over power to their children, because as the early historians suggested, the adult knows what is best for their children. Franklin (2002) suggests a conflict between adults rights and childrens rights could offer explanations for demonization of children. Another idea could be that giving children rights takes away a childs childhood. This may have been viewed from the idealistic construction of childhood being a period of innocence where they consider that children should not be concerned with important decision-making and responsibility. To further support childrens rights, the Children Act 2004 updated the legislation to include the abolishment of physical punishment (NSPCC, 2012). However, Owen and Pritchards (1983) idea of cultural relativism whereby specific behaviours in some families is attributed to cultural practice, questions the concept of how significant harm can actually be measured. In cases of child abuse, black and ethnic minority children could arguably be at a higher risk, as warning signs that would have been picked up are ignored and accepted to be cultural practices and norms. For instance Rogers, Hevey and Ash (1989) state that the beating of West Indian children can be viewed as traditional use of chastisement within that culture, rather than observed as physical abuse of children. Owen and Pritchard (1983) propose this aspect to racist beliefs and stereotyping, where culture is considered deviant rather than the actions of a caregiver. Conversely Munro (2008) considers Effective Child Protection and points out the significance on the value of relationships between families and the worker and suggests this leads to better outcomes by understanding the families and cultures. An effective assessment and intervention in child protection draws from having good interactions and aids parents to disclose information and collaborate with authorities. It could be argued if a worker does not believe in certain cultural practices that children could become at risk when maybe they are not. Another point to consider is the risk posed by professionals that work with children. Society has created an assumption that the rich, social workers, teachers and other professionals that work in child focused roles follow the legislation on protecting our children from significant harm. Yet through the power of this trust professionals have abused in safe spaces for children. For example the murder of Jessica Chapman and Holly Wells by the school caretaker in 2002, identified significant failings with regard to police vetting procedures (HMIC, 2004) and the notion of grooming and abusing positions of trust was incorporated into the Sexual Offences Act 2003. Considering the Act was implemented in 2003 Nursery manager Vanessa George was found guilty in 2009 of abusing children in her nursery. The review found a systemic failure in communication throughout and highlighted a common theme of assumption provided a fruitful environment in which to abuse, a point that has been proficiently highlighted by the mainstream press. The child protection policies and procedures were inadequate and rarely followed (Community Care, 2009). This suggests that Vanessa prayed on the innocence of children knowing how society views her as a practitioner. Cases such as this called for a review of vetting adults who work with children and formed a piece of legislation, the protection of freedoms Act (2012) which focuses on roles working closely with vulnerable groups. Some children related posts such as governors and school inspectors were being removed from the lists although they require having contact with children (Kelly, 2012). Additionally supervised volunteers will no longer be classed as working in regulated activity. Therefore, individuals barred from working in regulated activity can still volunteer at your school, as long as they are supervised. It could be argued that although the government is keen to scale back the cost of vetting, it does not take into account the risk of grooming which is not negated by supervision. Furthermore, this process does not allow schools to check the barred list when recruiting volunteers which suggests it is providing a false sense of security for all. A further report into child protection by Munro A child centred practice in 2011, established that a universal approach to child protection is preventing the main focus of the child. Munro recommended that the Government and local authorities should continually learn from what has happened in the past, however this could be difficult when cases such as Jamie Buglers that clamped the hatchet to protect the boys. One could question what lessons can be learnt from such secretive cases. Additionally, it could be argued that Munros child centred approach offers a potential negative impact on children and professionals. For instance, if the government removes the prescriptive practice that professionals may be using as guidance, this could create the potential to miss the signs of a child being abused based on judgement alone. Having considered this idea, future risks assessment needs to change, a theoretical and practical model needs to be considered to allow state intervention in cases where a caregivers ability to care for a child is questioned. The British government will be pivotal to play a major role in reforming existing legislation and constructing new strong legislation to allow involvement by care services in the most high risk cases of child abuse. This request on the government is a consequence of the philosophy of risk now predominant in the UK, and is assumed that the government has the skill to anticipate and stop abuse and harm which in turn holds the government responsible when this does not happen. In conclusion, the historical views of childhood can be seen throughout the numerous ideological discourses which determine how constructions of childhood continue to influence laws and legislation concerning the ways in which child protection is shaped. Although it is recognised that childhood warrants some degree of protective status, socioeconomic and cultural circumstances also affect young childrens behaviour and the way professionals practice. Those changed conditions also influence adult beliefs about rearing children and how protecting children should be. The emphasis on risk and assessing risk has changed over time, certainly through media, society and legislation. As outlined there are some recurrent issues such as the recognition of significant harm, taking appropriate action, effective communication and achieving an appropriate balance between supporting families and disruptive intervention to safeguard and promote childrens welfare. Nevertheless child protection has been around for a number of years and indicates that there is a correlation between legislation, society and the construct of childhood which continually mirrors each other and will probably continue to do so.

A.M.Holmes Music For Torching, Seth MacFarlanes Family Guy, and Tony

A.M.Holmes' Music For Torching, Seth MacFarlane's Family Guy, and Tony Kushner's Angels in America The social progression of America in the 20th and 21st centuries has been arguably advantageous. In the years following the feminist and civil rights movements, the United States has undeniably developed into the world’s leading democratic system. Women and minorities have equal citizenship status under the law. There are more females in the workforce than ever before, and formerly guarded issues such as homosexuality and domestic problems can now be addressed openly in social and political forums. However, the question remains as to whether or not such progression has benefited American culture and its population as a whole. Perhaps we have become too liberal, too timorous at addressing one another’s differences, resulting in the perpetual fear of coming across as too politically incorrect when expressing one’s opinions. Perhaps our social order has become excessively inverted; women are born intended to slave over the hot stove, and only males and females are b iologically prearranged to copulate. Perhaps we are still not tolerant enough, as many minorities still suffer quietly under a largely heterosexual-Caucasian-male-dominated regime. What we have gained from free thinking and global assimilation, we have also lost in traditional principles. Despite the cultural uncertainties that have risen from national change, it is evident that the â€Å"American dream† is no longer the embodiment of attaining the white picket fence and happy home that it once was. Postmodern texts seek to examine this social revolution by examining and questioning our social evolution. Three examples of such texts, A.M. Homes’ Music For Torching, Seth... ...ent of theories and doctrines? Have the values of America diminished because of such progression? Or has our nation not progressed at all, and remained stagnant because, as Kushner would contend, we have repeatedly committed the same societal mistakes throughout history? Though we have solved certain dilemmas, new ones have arisen. Americans cherish free enterprise, yet we have come to recognize that money cannot buy happiness. Women may now enter the workforce, but are forced to arbitrate between a career and children. Husbands face mid-life crises about the issue of their masculinity. In general, the simple idealism of the rags-to-riches success story is no longer the dream of the postmodern American. Our ambition has instead become a fixation with establishing and accepting one’s own identity and the identities of others despite continuing social uncertainties.

Are You Sure It’s Fat Free

Introduction: Food industry misleads us by calculating the fat content in packaged food on â€Å"weight basis† whereas the fat content (having to do more with the calorific value of a food item and not its weight) actually has to be calculated on the basis of the calorie value of the food item. So, the â€Å"calorie basis† is what has to be applied to know how much fat our food items actually carry. Here are three interesting eye-openers!! Breakfast: Oatmeal (Single serving = 45 g) Calories in a single serving = 160 Fat content is 2 g 1 g of fat has 9 calories 2 g of fat = 2 * 9 = 18 calories. The fat content is (18/160) * 100 = 11. 25 % Protein content is 1. 8 g 1 g of protein has 4 calories 1. 8 g of protein = 1. 8 * 4 = 7. 2 calories The protein content is (7. 2/160) * 100 = 4. 5% Lunch: Raisin Bran Crunch (Single serving = 60 g) Calories in a single serving = 190 Fat content is 1 g 1 g of fat has 9 calories The fat content is (9/190) * 100 = 4. 74 % Protein content is 3 g 1 g of protein has 4 calories 3 g of protein = 3 * 4 = 12 calories The protein content is (12/190) * 100 = 6. 32% Dinner: Vanilla Yogurt (Single serving = 225 g) Calories in a single serving = 110 Fat content is 2 g g of fat has 9 calories 2 g of fat = 2 * 9 = 18 calories The fat content is (18/110) * 100 = 16. 36 % Protein content is 5 g 1 g of protein has 4 calories 5 g of protein = 5 * 4 = 20 calories The protein content is (20/110) * 100 = 18. 18% Now, see what the food industry calculations would have been †¦ Breakfast: Oatmeal (Single serving = 45 g) Fat content is 2 g The fat content is (2 /45) * 100 = 4. 44 % Protein content is 1. 8 g The protein content is (1. 8/45) * 100 = 4% Lunch: Raisin Bran Crunch (Single serving = 60 g) Calories in a single serving = 190 Fat content is 1 g The fat content is (1/60) * 100 = 1. 7 % Protein content is 3 g The protein content is (3/60) * 100 = 5% Dinner: Vanilla Yogurt (Single serving = 225 g) Calories in a single serving = 110 Fat content is 2 g The fat content is (2/225) * 100 = 0. 89 % Protein content is 5 g The protein content is (5/225) * 100 = 2. 22% Conclusion: The above calculations speak for themselves. The actual fat/protein contents in packaged food stuffs are much more than what the food industry claims. This is misleading. The nutrition experts must enlighten the general public about this distorted information and help all towards better health.

Nitrogen essays

Nitrogen essays Nitrogen is nonmetallic, odorless, colorless, and tasteless gas. Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the earths atmosphere. Rutherford discover nitrogen in 1772. On the periodic table of elements Nitrogen is diatomic and has the chemical symbol of N. The atomic number is 7, and its atomic weight is 14. There are 7 protons, neutrons, and electrons in a nitrogen atom. The gas can be condensed in liquid state that has a boiling point of -195.8 degrees celcius or froze at -209.9 degrees celcius. Even though nitrogen does not combine easily with other elements, the atoms are parts of many chemical There are many uses of nitrogen. Manufacturers can obtain pure nitrogen by making liquid air. After that they separate the nitrogen from the oxygen and other gases in air by distillation. After distilled nitrogen is collected under pressure in specially designed metal containers. The most important use of nitrogen is in the production of ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is used as a fertilizer, as a refridgerant, and in the production of nitric acid and other chemicals. Nitrogen compounds are also important to the making of drugs, dyes, explosives, poisons, and synthetic fibers. Nitrogen is one of the most important elements on the periodic table. All organisms must have nitrogen to live. Proteins are formed of amino acids, which nitrogen is part of all the amino acids. Nitrogen is always being removed from the air and teturned to it in a series of chemical reactions known as the nitrogen cycle. The nitrogen cycly is the circulation of nitrogen among the atmosphere, the soil and water, and the plants and animals of the earth. People influence the nitrogen cycle, but it is harmful to the atmosphere. The use of nitrogen fertilizers adds nitrogen to the soil, and then rain water carries unused fertilizer and other nitrogen compounds into streams and lakes, where the ...

Modern Day Scarlet Letters essays

Modern Day Scarlet Letters essays How would Hesters scarlet letter compare to some of the scarlet letters of today? Would Hesters act of adultery really be considered as bad as some of the other problems that occur in our world today? Hesters actions today wouldnt have received the same attention as they did back in her time. People today are much more accustomed to issues such as adultery because they constantly hear about it and have really just learn to deal with it in a normal every day sort of way. We still see many problems with the actions of people in our society today; its just that we have many different and more severe problems in our world. Contemporary scarlet letters are more serious than the ones in the Scarlet Letter, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, but still relate to what Hester experienced. Adultery was the theme of The Scarlet Letter it was seen as one of the most awful and disrespectful acts that could be committed at that time. All people back then were fairly religious, and the church played a key role in their lives; it gave them a set of morals and rules they had to follow to live a happy, respectful, and fulfilling life. Whenever some one broke the laws and morals set by the church, as in the case of adultery, they were severely punished, because they went against morals and laws that were higher than government, they broke the law of God, which was more important to people back then than government. People today treat adultery very differently. The idea of God isnt as influential as it was back in the 1700s, because not everyone shares that belief in God; in the United States, there is a very mix of religions and spiritual backgrounds, and that diversity makes it hard to compose one correct set of morals based on religion. Therefore, acts such as adultery arent punished so harshly, because everyone doesnt see it as being wrong. ...

The Great Gatsby review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Great Gatsby review - Essay Example This is apparently illustrated by Nick who relocates to New York in search of a better future. At the end of the film, Gatsby exclaims to Nick that he was born penniless. Gatsby was a millionaire who was renowned in the neighbourhood, and this goes to show that success is possible for anyone as provided for by the second tenant of the American Dream. The two final tenets of the ideals of the American Dream are not well depicted in the film. Success is attained through hard work is the third principle. It is not clear to establish what Gatsby did to amass such wealth but there is an instance where Tom accuses him of bootlegging alcohol and conducting other illegal deeds. If in deed this is the reason why Gatsby was wealthy, the third principle does not apply in this case. The same can be said about the fourth tenet that asserts that success is associated with virtue. The hint of involvement in illegal practices may invalidate this tenet in the case of Gatsby and also he plans to take Daisy away from

The Introduction of Management Techniques and National Culture Research Paper

The Introduction of Management Techniques and National Culture - Research Paper Example HRM itself is the new avatar of ‘Personnel Management’. Personnel management was largely concerned with the technical aspects of hiring, evaluating, training, and compensating employees. HRM, on the other hand, leaves scope for career building of the employee, development of a professional relationship and the satisfaction aspect. It is no more a mere "staff" function in the organizations. The main reason for attempts to avoid bad publicity is because as per a recent study seventy per cent of world trade—â€Å"including one-third of all manufacturing exports, three-quarters of all commodity trade, and four-fifths of technical and management services trade†Ã¢â‚¬â€was accounted for by the 500 largest MNCs. Changes in almost every aspect of human life are taking place very rapidly in a pervasive and profound manner. This change is engulfing technologies, products, processes, materials and above all, People. Globalization leads the changing scenario, bringing in newer technologies, a new phenomenon of the knowledge worker and of course the competitive era. In view of the competition and globalization companies start exploring avenues for growth within and outside the borderline of their country of origination. Therefore, it is amply clear from the above diagram that companies are required to take care of a number of factors while planning to go global. Expanding business operations beyond national boundaries, while continuing the commitment to local markets requires more complex business structures. Large, worldwide businesses tend to evolve from international to multinational to global structures.